"The Garden of Forking Paths"
- 1941
- Created a story that would be the inspiration for the hypertext novel.
- Inspired "Hopscotch," the first hypertext novel, written by Julio Cortazar.
- Some people think of Borges as creating the concept of the internet
"As We May Think"
- 1945
- Bush wrote about how the developments of the military/industrial complex of WWII created the need for a way to retain and access all sorts of information as means of preventing the abuse of powerful technologies (especially weapons).
- Invented Memex, the first desktop data storage and access/viewing system.
"Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
- 1950
- Turing was a mathematician at Cambridge
- Helped create the British Colossus computers which decrypted data
- Created the Turing test, the goal of which was to see in a practical manner, whether computer could "think"
- The turing test involves a computer and a person answering another person's questions and having the questioner decide which answer comes from the machine and which from the other person.
- He concluded based on these tests that computers could outsmart humans.
"Men, Machines, and the World About"
- 1954
- Invented the idea of "Cybernetics"
- Cybernetics involves the similarities between the human mind and the way machines/computers work
- Did a lot of work on the notion of Feedback Loops in the context of computers receiving commands (inputs) and taking actions based on those commands (outputs)
- The Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility gives out a Wiener Award based on interest in the responsible use of new technology.
"Man-Computer Symbiosis"
- 1960
- Head of ARPA (Advanced Resarch Projects Agency at the DOD)
- Had a vision of using computers for more than just solving problems that humans gave to it, but rather realizing problems and solving them on their own, based on what they would think humans would be interested in
- Perhaps a precursor to the idea of predictive text and suggested searches that we use today
"'Happenings' in the New York Scene"
- 1961
- Kaprow was a performance artist who pioneered the "Happenings" movement
- Happenings were impromptu performances in unusual spaces, not normally associated with theatre
- These were perhaps indicative of the sixties' counter-culture movement, as this is when they became quite popular
"The Cut-Up Method of Brion Gysin"
- 1961
- Burroughs was a Beat Generation writer, most famous for "Naked Lunch"
- User of the "Cut-Up Method," whereby writers, musicians and DJS cut up their finished works, and reorganize the words and phrases to create entirely new works
"Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework"
- 1962
- Member of DARPA (formerly ARPA)
- Protege of Licklider and Bush
- Invented the theory of Intelligence Amplification
- Interested in furthering the ability for humans to use computers to simplify their lives and increase their intelligence
- Invented the Mouse, the Graphic User Interface, the Window, the Word-Processor
- Simultaneously invented the hyperlink, along with Ted Nelson (coincidence)
"Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System"
- 1963
- One of the first Graphic User Interfaces (GUI)
- Allowed users to draw directly onto the screen, and have their drawings become part of the document
- A precursor to Ken Perlin's version from the 1980s, simply called the Pad system.
"The Construction of Change"
- 1964
- Ascott is an artist and a teacher
- Advocated artists becoming more aware of where they exist within the artistic spectrum
- Believed that artists could become more focused based on the more they know where the fit in
"A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate"
- 1965
- Coined the Term "Hypertext"
- Had a vision for the hyperlink and hypertext that was much more broad than how we understand the term today
"Six Selections by the Oulipo"
- 1961, 1973 & 1981
- A French group of writers
- Created "potential" literature
- The user was encouraged to take the individual lines and make his own works out of it
- Similar to, yet the opposite of, the cut-up method
- 1962 & 1964
- Social critic and important scholar in the field of journalism
- Coined the term "The Medium is the Message"
- Distinguished between "hot" and "cold" media
- Started to explain the shift towards "electric" or "new" media after the invention of typography
- 1961, 1966, 1967, 1972
- Experiments in Arts and Technology
- Founded in 1966 by Billy Kluver, Robert Rauschenberg, Robert Whitman and Fred Waldhauer
- Helped to bridge the gap between artists and engineers
- Pioneered some interesting new media art pieces involving sophisticated technology
- 1974
- Computer Lib/Dream Machines
- Two books, bound back-to-back
- Nelson railed against central computers
- Nelson advocated using computers for advancing new media
- Advocate of open-source-style architecture
- 1974
- Situationist Artist
- Highlighted injustices in Brazil with his art
- Tortured; his colleagues were murdered
- Eventually elected to office in Brazil
- Brought his fellow artists to serve as his political staff
- 1975
- Wanted computers to be as responsive as possible to humans
- Not interested in just having computers to be number-crunchers
- Helped create the Graphic User Interface (GUI)
- 1976
- Concerned about the growth/potential dangers of computer technology
- Created the most famous Chatterbot, Eliza, which used a script called Doctor
- Essentially created a digital therapist
- Was concerned that people would see computers as an alternative to human interaction
- 1977
- Computer Scientist and Artist
- Helped to bridge the gap between science and art
- Wanted to use computers for more than just math, and wanted to use art for the response of the viewer
- "The Response is the Medium"
- 1977
- Worked at Xerox's PARC
- Created the idea for the Dynabook, the precursor to the modern notebook computer
- Created the Xerox PARC desktop computer
- They had visions for using the computer for many basic tasks such as filing and drawing
- 1980
- "A Thousand Plateaus"
- Created the notion of Rhizone, an abstract writing method similar to hypertext
- 1980
- Helped to further the penetration of computers into the mainstream market
- Involved in using computers as a method of education for children
- Created LOGO programming language
- One of the forces behind Lego Mindstorms
- 1980
- Wrote essay about The Media Room at MIT
- Virtual Reality immersive experience
- The Media Room helped show how accessible computers could be to ordinary people
- 1982
- Literary Machines
- Explained his vision for Xanedu, a system for accessing and editing everyone's documents
- Similar in concept to Wikipedia
- 1982
- Pioneer of Video Art
- Explored the notion of private vs. public space in the digital realm
- 1983
- Talked about his fears of media consolidation
- Published in several editions; each time there were fewer, but larger media companies
- He was concerned that too few people controlled too much information and influence
- 1983
- Explored the notion of direct manipulation
- A more interactive, realistic means of working with computers
- Inspired by video and arcade games
- 1984
- Turkle, a psychologist, explored why people played videogames
- Concluded that it was partly due to a need for people to express themselves
- Talked about the idea of the "Second Self," decades before the game Second Life was created.
- 1985
- Cyborg Theory
- Talks about how technology can be an extension of the self
- 1985
- Created the GNU operating system
- Pioneer in the "free" software movement
- "Free" as in open-source, not necessarily monetarily
- 1986 and 1991
- Takes a "classical" view of computing
- Saw computers and technology as a means of exploring new opportunities in theater and entertainment
- 1986
- Attempted to create categories for computer-related activities
- 4 categories
- allocution
- conversation
- consultation
- registration
- 1986
- Social comentator, science writer and technology professor
- Saw computers as a tool for people to connect
- Didn't like the idea of a "computer revolution"
- Didn't like the idea of computers that weren't networked with other users
- 1987
- Science and Technology Professor
- Scholar in the field of Human Computer Interaction
- She thinks that the environment in which technology is used is as important as any other element.
- 1988
- The first writer of a hypertext novel with legitimate literary merit
- Coined the notion of "Constructive Hypertexts"
- Highlighted the distinction between constructive and exploratory hypertexts
- 1988
- Talks about cybernetic systems, as they relate to new media and film
- Nichols is a film theorist
- 1990
- Filmmaker and artist
- She created video art installation that involved interactivity (Lorna)
- 1991
- Created mock-ups of computers, computer equipment and office furniture from cardboard
- This method of design was an easy way to simulate the final step of the design process
- One of the steps in the process of creating the Graphic User Interface
- 1991
- Habitat was an internet-based video game
- 2D Role Player Game created by Lucasfilm Games in the mid 1980s
- One of the first internet-based games
- 1991
- Professor of New Media
- Helped to advance graphic space for computers
- Windows, tiles, etc.
- Furthered the notion of how one "see"s the information on the computer, and how it is displayed
- 1991
- Hypertext writer and theorist
- Talks about the plusses, minuses, limitations and potential of hypertext
- From my hometown of Baltimore
- 1992
- Writes about the progression and future of hypertext
- Predicts the end of the novel as it is known
- Suggests that everything will become computerized and based on hypertext
- 1993
- The "Aristotle of Comics"
- Defined comics as "sequential art"
- His work helped to pave the way for understanding other types of new media that portrayed time passing
- 1994
- Wrote about Privacy in the digital age
- Poses similar concerns to those of Larry Lessig in "Code 2.0"
- Many of Agre's concerns are very relevant today with the Patriot Act, etc.
- 1994
- Major figure in electronic literature
- Saw video games strictly as games and not as art or hypertext, etc.
- 1994
- A group of several media minds, artists, writers, theorists, and more
- Used their specialties in specific fields to work for political causes and cultural change
- 1994
- Wrote about the World Wide Web
- All major pioneers of the Internet, and various other developments in the world of computers and technology
- Outlined what the World Wide Web is, how it works, etc.
- Also talks about the future of the WWW, which was still in its infancy, and where the writers wanted it to go, and how the reader could help it get there
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